Olive
Olive oil is extracted from olive fruit which is considered best amongst all vegetable edible oils. Live oil either is not needed to be refines or very little because it is refined by natural air. There are 900 plants related to olive family. Olive wood is considered the good kind of good for construction and furniture purposes due to its hardness and strength. Olive is the plant of Mediterranean regions nevertheless, it is now being cultivated in all the regions having climate synonymous to Mediterranean regions.
Olive is cultivated for having olive fruits which are used for eating directly or extracting oil from them. Olive fruit contains 20 % oil. Olive is also used for industrial purposes. For the production of olive, Spain, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Turkey and Tunisia are worth mentioning. Other Mediterranean regions of olive production include California, Mexico, Peru, Argentina and Chili.
The olive is one of the plants most often cited in literature. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,[4] and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping.[5] Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.[6] It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens.[7] In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronship of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. Though, according to the 4th-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age of about 200 years,[8] he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD;[9] and when Pausanias was shown it, ca 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits;"[10] indeed, the olive suckers readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was perfectly possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage.
The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[11] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.[12]
The leafy branches of the olive tree - the olive leaf as a symbol of abundance, glory and peace - were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. As emblems of benediction and purification, they were also ritually offered to deities and powerful figures; some were even found in Tutankhamen's tomb.
Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic Games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. Today, it is still used in many religious ceremonies.
Over the years, the olive has been the symbol of peace, wisdom, glory, fertility, power and pureness. The olive tree and olives are mentioned over 30 times in the Bible, in both the New and Old Testaments. It is one of the first plants mentioned in the Bible, and one of the most significant. For example, it was an olive leaf that a dove brought back to Noah to demonstrate that the flood was over. The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned several times. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in chapter 5 of the Book of Jacob in the Book of Mormon, refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites and gentiles to tame and wild olive trees. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.[13] The olive is praised in the Quran as a precious fruit.
The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the Quran. In Chapter 24 Al-Nur: "Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The metaphor of His Light is that of a niche in which is a lamp, the lamp inside a glass, the glass like a brilliant star, lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the east nor of the west, its oil all but giving off light even if no fire touches it. Light upon Light. Allah guides to His Light whoever He wills and Allah makes metaphors for mankind and Allah has knowledge of all things." (Quran, 24:35). Olive tree and olive oil health benefits have been propounded in Prophetic medicine. The Prophet Mohamed is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with it - it is a blessed tree" (Sunan al-Darimi, 69:103).
The olive tree seems to have been native in the Mediterranean region and Western Asia, and spread to nearby countries from there. It is estimated the cultivation of olive trees began more than 7000 years ago. As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization.[14] The ancient Greeks used to smear olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health.
Theophrastus, in On the Nature of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos.[15]
After the 16th century, the Europeans brought the olive to the New World, and its cultivation began in Mexico, Peru, Chile and Argentina, and then in the 18th century in California. It is estimated that there are about 800 million olive trees in the world today, and the vast majority of these are found in Mediterranean countries.[citation needed]
[edit] Old olive trees
Olive tree “Olea europea” on Bar, Montenegro which is over 2,000 years old
Olive trees are very hardy, drought-, disease- and fire-resistant, and can live for a very long time. Its root system is very robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the above-ground structure is destroyed. The older an olive tree is, the broader and more gnarled its trunk appears. Many olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean are said to be several centuries old, and in some cases this has been verified scientifically.
Pliny the Elder told of a sacred Greek olive tree that was 1,600 years old. Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words "gat shemanim" or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus.[16] Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Roman times, although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult.
One olive tree in Bar, Montenegro, is claimed to be over 2,000 years old.[17]
Also, the age of an olive tree in Crete, claimed to be over 2,000 years old, has been determined on the basis of tree ring analysis.[18] Another well-known olive tree on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has been calculated to be about 1,600 years old. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg/66 lb per year), which is made into top quality olive oil.[19]
An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", was rumored to be a remnant of the grove within which Plato's Academy was situated, which would date it to approximately 2,400 years ago. The tree was a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to fall on and uproot it. Since then the trunk is preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. A supposedly even older tree, called the "Peisistratos Tree", is located by the banks of the Cephisus River, in the municipality of Agioi Anargyroi, and is said to be a remnant of an olive grove planted by Athenian tyrant Peisistratos in the 6th century BC.
According to a recent scientific survey, there are dozens of ancient olive trees throughout Biblical Israel, 1,600-2,000 years old,[20] from even before the rise of Islam. Specifically, two giant olive trees in the Arab town of Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in Galilee region, have been determined to be over 3,000 years old. All seven trees continue to produce olives.[20]
A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana in Sardinia, Italy, named with respect as the Ozzastru by the inhabitants of the region, is claimed to be 3,000 to 4,000 years old according to different studies. In the same natural garden, a few other millenary trees can be admired.
[edit] Cultivation and uses
For more details on this topic, see Olive (fruit).
An example of black olives
The olive tree has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and the olive fruit. The earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic Period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan.
Farmers in ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km/34.5 mi) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, it has long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild.
Olive plantation in Andalucía, Spain
Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Australia, the Mediterranean Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters (Cwa).[21] The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the fruit keeps its original characteristics.[22]
A selection of olives in a market in Tel Aviv, Israel
Considerable research supports the health-giving benefits of consuming olives, olive leaf and olive oil (see external links below for research results). Olive leaves are used in medicinal teas.
Olives are now being looked at for use as a renewable energy source, using waste produced from the olive plants as an energy source that produces 2.5 times the energy generated by burning the same amount of wood. The smoke released has no negative impact on neighbors or the environment, and the ash left in the stove can be used for fertilizing gardens and plants. The process has been patented in the Middle East and the US.[23]
[edit] Subspecies
There are six natural subspecies distributed over a wide range: [24]
* Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Mediterranean Basin)
* Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to South West China)
* Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries)
* Olea europaea subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira)
* Olea europaea subsp. maroccana Morocco
* Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)
The subspecies maroccana and cerasiformis are respectively hexaploid and tetraploid.[25]
[edit] Cultivars
See also: List of olive cultivars
There are thousands of cultivars of the olive. In Italy alone at least three hundred cultivars have been enumerated, but only a few are grown to a large extent. None of these can be accurately identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely that some of the narrow-leaved cultivars most esteemed may be descendants of the Licinian olive. The Iberian olives are usually cured and eaten, often after being pitted, stuffed (with pickled pimento, anchovies, or other fillings) and packed in brine in jars or tins. Some also pickle olives at home.
Olives being home-pickled
Since many cultivars are self sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops.
Some particularly important cultivars of olive include:
* "Amfissa" is an excellent quality Greek table olive grown in Amfissa, Central Greece near the oracle of Delphi. Amfissa olives enjoy protected designation of origin (PDO) status, and are equally good for olive oil extraction. The olive grove of Amfissa, which consists of 1,200,000 olive trees is a part of a protected natural landscape.
* "Gemlik" is a variety from the Gemlik area of northern Turkey. They are small to medium sized black olives with a high oil content. This type of olive is very common in Turkey and is sold as a breakfast olive in the cured formats of either Yagli Sele, Salamura or Duble, though there are other less common curings. The sign of a traditionally cured Gemlik olive is that the flesh comes away from the pip easily.
* "Bosana" is the most common olive grown on Sardinia. It is used mostly for oils.
* "Manzanillo" or "Manzanilla", a large, rounded-oval fruit, with purple-green skin, originated in Dos Hermanas, Seville, in southern Spain. "Manzanillas" means little apples in Spanish. Known for a rich taste and thick pulp, it is a prolific bearer, grown around the world.
* "Frantoio" and "Leccino" cultivars are the principal raw material for Italian olive oils from Tuscany. Leccino has a mild sweet flavour, while Frantoio is fruity with a stronger aftertaste. Due to their highly valued flavour, these cultivars are now grown in other countries.
* "Arbequina" is a small, brown olive grown in Catalonia, Spain, good for eating and for oil.
* "Cornicabra", originating in Toledo, Spain, comprises about 12% of Spain's production. It is mainly used for oil.
* "Empeltre", a medium-sized black olive grown in Spain, is also dual-purpose.
* "Hojiblanca" originated in the province of Córdoba, Spain; its oil is widely appreciated for its slightly bitter flavour.
* "Kalamata", a large, black olive with a smooth and meatlike taste, is named after the city of Kalamata, Greece, and is used as a table olive. These olives are usually preserved in wine, vinegar or olive oil. Kalamata olives enjoy PDO status.[26]
* "Koroneiki" originated from the southern Peloponese, around Kalamata and Mani in Greece. This small olive, though difficult to cultivate, has a high yield of olive oil of exceptional quality.
* "Picholine" or "pecholine", is grown in the south of France. It is green, medium size, and elongated. The flavour is mild and nutty.
* "Picual", from southern Spain (province of Jaén), is the most widely cultivated olive in Spain, comprising about 50% of Spain's olive production and around 20% of world olive production. It has a strong but sweet flavour, and is widely used in Spain as a table olive. Moreover, its oil has some of the best chemical properties found in olive oil, being the richest in oleic acid and vitamin E.[citation needed]
* "Lucques" is found in the south of France (Aude département). They are green, large, and elongated. The stone has an arcuated (bow)shape. Their flavour is mild and nutty.
* "Souri", grown in Lebanon near the town of Sur (Tyre) and widespread in the Levant, has a high oil yield and exceptionally aromatic flavour.
* "Nabali", a Palestinian cultivar[27] also known locally as "Baladi", which, along with "Souri" and "Malissi", is considered to produce among the highest quality olive oil in the world.[28]
* "Barnea" is a modern dual-purpose cultivar bred in Israel to be disease-resistant and to produce a generous crop. The oil has a strong flavour with a hint of green leaf. Barnea is widely grown in Israel and in the southern hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New Zealand.
* "Maalot" (Hebrew for merits)is a disease-resistant, Eastern Mediterranean cultivar derived from the North African "Chemlali" cultivar in Israel. The olive is medium sized, round, has a fruity flavour and is used almost exclusively for oil production.
* "Mission" originated on the California Missions and is now grown throughout the state. They are black and generally used for table consumption.
[edit] Growth and propagation
Olive trees on Thassos, Greece
Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils they are predisposed to disease and produce poorer oil than in poorer soil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather, and temperatures below −10 °C (14.0 °F) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well, thanks to their sturdy and extensive root system. Olive trees can live exceptionally long, up to several centuries, and can remain productive for as long, if they are pruned correctly and regularly.
Olives grow very slowly, and over many years the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 metres (33 ft) in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 metres (49 ft) in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers. There are only a handlful of olive varieties that can be used to cross-pollinate. Pendolino olive trees are partially self-fertile, but pollenizers are needed for a large fruit crop. Other compatible olive tree pollenizers include Leccino and Maurino. Pendolino olive trees are used extensively as pollenizers in large olive tree groves.
Olives are propagated by various methods. The preferred ways are either cuttings or layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well (Lewington and Parker, 114). Branches of various thickness cut into lengths of about 1 metre (3.3 ft) and planted deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot.
Occasionally, large branches are marched[clarification needed] to obtain young trees. The olive is also sometimes grown from seed; to facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is first softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot water or in an alkaline solution.
Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized. The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many cases a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season.
Olive Trees in Turkish famous oil region, Edremit Bay
The origins of this plant are the subject of debate.
[citation needed]
- Most authorities claim it is native to South Asia (particularly the Ganges Delta), while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America.
- Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as long as 15 million years ago.
- Even older fossils have been uncovered in Karnataka, Rajasthan, Thennai in Kerala on the banks of River Palar, Then-pennai, Thamirabharani, Cauvery and Mountain sides at Kerala borders, Konaseema-Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra (India)
- The oldest known so far in Khulna, Bangladesh.
- Mention is made of coconuts in the 2nd–1st centuries BC in the Mahawamsa of Sri Lanka. The later Culawamsa states that King Aggabodhi I (575–608) planted a coconut garden of 3 yojanas length, possibly the earliest recorded coconut plantation.
Etymology
The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco 'grinning face, grin, grimace', also 'bugbear, scarecrow', cognate with cocar 'to grin, make a grimace'; the name being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes. Historical evidence favors the European origin of the name, for there is nothing similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Malayalam name tenga, and Canarese narle, expressly say 'we call these fruits quoquos', 'our people have given it the name of coco', 'that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga'."
Natural habitat
The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of
salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.
[7] Coconuts also need high
humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity, like the
Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or 75.2°F).
Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27 °C (81 °F), and growth is reduced below 21 °C (70 °F). Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28–37 °C (82–99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C (24.8 °F).
[7] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas where there is not sufficient warmth, like
Bermuda.
The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:
- mean daily temperature above 12-13 °C every day of the year
- 50 year low temperature above freezing
- mean yearly rainfall above 1000 mm
- no or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require a lot of sun
The main limiting factor is that most locations which satisfy the first three requirements do not satisfy the fourth, except near the coast where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees (Palmtalk
[8]).
The range of the natural habitat of the coconut palm tree is delineated by the red line in map C1 to the right (based on information in Werth 1933,
[9] slightly modified by Niklas Jonsson).
Cultivation
Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.
[7]
Coconut palms are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tonnes per year.
[10]
| Top ten coconut producers — 19 December 2009 |
| Country | Production (tonnes) | Footnote |
 Philippines | 19,500,000 | * |
 Indonesia | 15,319,500 |
|
 India | 10,894,000 |
|
 Brazil | 2,759,044 |
|
 Sri Lanka | 2,200,000 | F |
 Thailand | 1,721,640 | F |
 Mexico | 1,246,400 | F |
 Vietnam | 1,086,000 | A |
 Papua New Guinea | 677,000 | F |
 Malaysia | 555,120 |
|
 Tanzania | 370,000 | F |
| World | 54,716,444 | A |
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate,
* = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure,
A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations:
Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division
|
Coconut and copra output in 2005
Harvesting
In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained
pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern
Thailand, and in the
Malaysian state of
Kelantan.
[11] Competitions are held each year to find the fastest harvester.
Pests and diseases
Diseases
Coconuts are susceptible to the
phytoplasma disease
Lethal Yellowing. One recently selected
cultivar,
'Maypan', has been bred for resistance to this disease.
Pests
The coconut palm is damaged by the
larvae of many
Lepidoptera (
butterfly and
moth) species which feed on it, including
Batrachedra spp:
B. arenosella,
B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on
Cocos nucifera),
B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on
Cocos nucifera), and
B. nuciferae.
Brontispa longissima (the "coconut leaf beetle") feeds on young
leaves and damages
seedlings and mature coconut
palms. On September 27, 2007,
Philippines'
Metro Manila and 26
provinces were
quarantined due to having been infested with this
pest (to save the $800-million Philippine coconut
industry).
[12]
The fruit may also be damaged by
eriophyid coconut mites (
Eriophyes guerreronis). This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature nuts are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the perianth of the immature nut; the nuts then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable sulfur 0.4% or with
neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labour intensive.
In Kerala the main pests of coconut are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red Palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research on this topic has as of 2009
[update] produced no results, and researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode are still searching for a cure. The
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under
Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called
compact area group approach (CAGA) to combat coconut mites.
India
Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala,Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Pondicherry, Maharashtra and Islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.
Kerala is the largest coconut growing state in India, and is famous for the most tender coconuts in India.
[citation needed] They are also famous for the coconut-based products like tender
coconut water, copra,
coconut oil, coconut cake, coconut toddy, coconut shell-based products, coconut wood-based products, coconut leaves, and coir pith.
Four southern states put together account for 92% of the total production in the country (Kerala 45.22%, Tamil Nadu 26.56%, Karnataka 10.85%, Andhra Pradesh 8.93% and other states 8.44%).
[13]
Coconut is cultivated mainly in the following Indian States
- Kerala (All India Production 45%)
- Tamil Nadu (All India Production 27%)
- Karnataka (All India Production 11%)
- Andhra pradesh (All India Production 9%)
- Other States like Goa, Maharashtra, Orisa and West Bengal
Coconut Trees in the House near the Backwaters of Kerala
Sunset amidst Coconut Trees, in the backwaters of Kerala
United States of America
The only states in the U.S. where coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation are
Hawaii and south
Florida. Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and
St. Petersburg southwards on Florida's west coast, and
Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favored microclimates in the Tampa and Clearwater metro area and around Cape Canaveral, as well as the Orlando-Kissimmee-Daytona Beach metro area. They may likewise be grown in favored microclimates in the
Rio Grande Valley area of Deep South Texas near
Brownsville and on
Galveston Island. They may reach fruiting maturity, but are damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in these areas. While coconut palms flourish in south Florida, unusually bitter cold snaps can kill or injure coconut palms there as well. Only the
Florida Keys and the coastlines provide safe havens from the cold for growing coconut palms on the U.S. mainland.
[citation needed] The farthest north in the United States a coconut palm has been known to grow outdoors is in
Newport Beach,
California along the
Pacific Coast Highway. For coconut palms to survive in
Southern California, they need sandy soil and minimal water in the winter to prevent root rot, and would benefit from root heating coils.
[citation needed]
Middle East
The main coconut producing area in the
Middle East is the
Dhofar region of
Oman. In particular, the area around
Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the
Arabian Sea. The large coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller
Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al
Rihla.
[14] This is possible due to an annual rainy season known locally as
Khareef.
Coconuts also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The
UAE have, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of
pests to other native palm trees, such as the date palm.
[15]
Plant
Fruit
Illustration of a coconut tree
Layers of the coconut fruit
Botanically the coconut
fruit is a
drupe, not a true
nut.
[16] Like other fruits it has
three layers:
exocarp,
mesocarp, and
endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp together make up the
husk, and the mesocarp is composed of
fibers called
coir. Coconuts sold in the shops of non-tropical countries often have had the husk removed. The endocarp or
shell is the hardest part of the coconut. The shell has three
germination pores (
stoma) or
eyes that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.
Seed
Within the shell is a single seed. When the seed germinates, the root (
radicle) of its
embryo pushes out through one of the eyes of the shell. The outermost layer of the seed, the
testa, adheres to the inside of the shell. In a mature coconut, a thick albuminous
endosperm adheres to the inside of the testa. This endosperm or
meat is the white and fleshy edible part of the coconut. Coconuts sold with a small portion of the husk cut away are immature, and contain
coconut water rather than meat.
Although coconut meat contains less
fat than many
oilseeds and nuts such as
almonds, it is noted for its high amount of medium-chain
saturated fat.
[17] About 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated, a proportion exceeding that of foods such as
lard,
butter, and
tallow. There has been some debate as to whether or not the saturated fat in coconuts is less unhealthy than other forms of saturated fat (see
coconut oil). Like most nut meats, coconut meat contains less
sugar and more
protein than popular fruits such as bananas, apples and oranges. It is relatively high in
minerals such as
iron,
phosphorus and
zinc.
The endosperm surrounds a hollow interior space, filled with air and often a liquid referred to as
coconut water (distinct from
coconut milk). Young coconuts used for coconut water are called tender coconuts: when the coconut is still green, the endosperm inside is thin and tender, and is often eaten as a snack, but the main reason to pick the fruit at this stage is to drink its water. The water of a tender coconut is liquid endosperm. It is sweet (mild) with an aerated feel when cut fresh. Depending on its size a tender contains 300 to 1,000 ml of coconut water.
The meat in a young coconut is softer and more gelatinous than a mature coconut, so much so, that it is sometimes known as coconut jelly. When the coconut has ripened and the outer husk has turned brown, a few months later, it will fall from the palm of its own accord. At that time the endosperm has thickened and hardened, while the coconut water has become somewhat bitter.
When the coconut fruit is still green, the husk is very hard, but green coconuts only fall if they have been attacked by molds, etc. By the time the coconut naturally falls, the husk has become brown, the coir has become drier and softer, and the coconut is less likely to cause damage when it drops, although there have been instances of coconuts falling from palms and injuring people, and claims of some fatalities. This was the subject of a paper published in 1984 that won the
Ig Nobel Prize in 2001. Falling coconut deaths are often used as a comparison to shark attacks; the claim is often made that a person is more likely to be killed by a falling coconut than by a shark, yet, there is no evidence of people ever being killed in this manner.
[18]
When viewed on end, the endocarp and germination pores give the fruit the appearance of a
coco (also Côca), a Portuguese word for a scary witch from Portuguese folklore, that used to be represented as a carved vegetable lantern, hence the name of the fruit.
[19] The specific name
nucifera is Latin for
nut-bearing.
A small number of writings about coconut mention the existence of the
coconut pearl due to the rarity of the gem.
[20] Reginald
[20] mentions in his book a few publishings whose author purposely avoided discussion about the vegetable-gem.
The shell composition is shown in the tables below.
| Coconut shell compound (dry basis) |
| Compound | Percent |
| Cellulose | 33.61 |
| Lignin | 36.51 |
| Pentosans | 29.27 |
| Ash | 0.61 |
Source: Jasper Guy Woodroof (1979). "Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products".
2nd ed. AVI Publishing Co. Inc. |
|
| Coconut shell ash compound |
| Compound | Percent |
| K2O | 45.01 |
| Na2O | 15.42 |
| CaO | 6.26 |
| MgO | 1.32 |
| Fe2O3 + Al2O3 | 1.39 |
| P2O5 | 4.64 |
| SO3 | 5.75 |
| SiO2 | 4.64 |
Source: Jasper Guy Woodroof (1979). "Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products".
2nd ed. AVI Publishing Co. Inc. |
|
Roots
Unlike some other
plants, the
palm tree has neither
tap root nor
root hairs; but has a
fibrous root system.
[21]
Inflorescence
On the same
inflorescence, the palm produces both the female and male flowers; thus the palm is
monoecious.
[21]
Uses
The coconut palm yields up to 75 fruits per year
[citation needed]. Nearly all parts of the palm are useful, and it has significant
economic value.
The versatility of the coconut palm has given rise to names in many languages.In
Sanskrit it is
kalpa vriksha, which translates as "the tree which provides all the necessities of life". In the
Malay language, the coconut is known as
pokok seribu guna, "the tree of a thousand uses". In the
Philippines, the coconut is commonly given the title "
Tree of Life".
[citation needed]
Flower
Coconut Flower and Kerala Marriage
- In Kerala in South India, coconut flowers must be present during a marriage ceremony.
- The flowers are inserted into a barrel of unhusked rice (paddy) and placed within the sight of the wedding ceremony.
- Those who visit the marriage in the Kerala State will be able to see and understand the importance given to the Coconut Flower.
Husk
In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium because of its cost-effectiveness to produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre (ACFTSC) in 1986. Fresh husks contains more
tannin than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth.
[22]
In India, the coconut husk is used extensively in the manufacture of coir, which is subsequently used in the production of rope, as well as household products like door mats and sacks.
[citation needed]
Shell
In India, coconut shells are used as bowls and in the manufacture of various crafts products, including
buttons. In certain parts of South India, the shell and husk also are burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes. Coconut shell is sometimes used to 'ward away the evil eye' in South India.
Culinary
Culinary uses of the various parts of the coconut include:
- The nut provides oil for cooking and making margarine.
- The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is edible and used fresh or dried in cookin Coconut water
Main article:
Coconut water 
A relatively young tender-coconut with a straw, to drink the coconut water.
- The cavity is filled with coconut water, which is sterile until opened. It also mixes easily with blood, so for these reasons it was used during World War II as an emergency transfusion liquid for patients who had lost a lot of blood.[citation needed]
- It contains sugar, fiber, proteins, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals, and provides an isotonic electrolyte balance, making it a highly nutritious food source. It is used as a refreshing drink throughout the humid tropics, and is also used in isotonic sports drinks. It can also be used to make the gelatinous dessert nata de coco. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young immature coconuts, barring spoilage.
[edit] Coconut milk
Main article:
Coconut milk- Coconut milk is made by processing grated coconut with hot water or milk, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. It should not be confused with coconut water, and has a fat content around 17%.[citation needed] When refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate from the milk. The milk is used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removing the oil fraction. Virgin coconut oil is found superior to the oil extracted from copra for cosmetic purposes.[citation needed]
- The leftover fiber from coconut milk production is used as livestock feed.
Toddy and nectar
- The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, or fermented to produce palm wine, also known as "toddy" or, in the Philippines, tuba. The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy, too.
- Coconut nectar is an extract from the young bud, a very rare type of nectar collected and used as morning break drink in the islands of Maldives, and is reputed to have energetic power, keeping the "raamen" (nectar collector) healthy and fit even over 80 or 90 years old. A by-product, a sweet honey-like syrup called dhiyaa hakuru is used as a creamy sugar for desserts.
"Millionaire's Salad" and coconut sprout
- Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as"palm-cabbage" or heart-of-palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as the act of harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad".
- Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo.
Philippines and Vietnam
- In the Philippines, rice is wrapped in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage; these packets are called puso.
- In Vietnam, coconut is grown mainly in Ben Tre Province, often called the "land of the coconut". It is used to make candy, caramel and jelly.
- Coconut juice and coconut milk are used in many dishes, especially in Vietnam's Southern style of cooking, e.g.kho, chè, etc.
Illustration of a coconut tree
India
A mature coconut's interior after breaking the coconut
South Indian dish - Idli and Coconut Chutney
- In Kerala, most dishes include coconut. The most common way of cooking vegetables is to scrape coconut and then steam the vegetables with coconut and spices after frying in a little oil. Dishes that include scraped coconut are generally referred to as "thoran", while dishes without scraped coconut belong to the class "Mezhukku purratti".
- People from Kerala also make a wide variety of "chamandis" which involve grinding the coconut meat with salt, chillies, and various whole spices. The "chamandi" can then be eaten with rice or kanji (rice gruel).
- The coconut meat is also used as a snack and is eaten with jaggery or molasses.
- "Puttu" is a culinary delicacy from Kerala, in which layers of coconut alternate with layers of powdered rice, all of which fit into a bamboo stalk. In recent times this has been replaced with steel or aluminium tubes, which is then steamed over a pot.
- Daily at least one coconut "tamil:தேங்காய்" is broken in the middle class families in Tamil Nadu for using in their food preparations.
- Invariably the main side dish served with Idli, Vada, and Dosa is coconut chutney.
- Coconut is mixed and ground with other spices for sambar and other lunch dishes.
-
